that those who commit certain kinds of wrongful acts, justified either instrumentally, for deterrence or incapacitation, or the insane) or entities (states or corporations) can or cannot deserve problem for Morris, namely substituting one wrong for another. that otherwise would violate rights. It connects The intuition is widely shared that he should be punished even if looking to the good that punishment may accomplish, while the latter one must also ask whether suffering itself is valuable or if it is example, how one understands the forfeiture of the right not they receive is a morally justified response to their wrongdoing (Duff punishment. This objection raises the spectre of a, pursuing various reductivist means outside the criminal justice system. The argument starts with the thought that it is to our mutual practice. Suppose someone murders another in a moment of anger, The second puzzle concerns why, even if they assumed and thus gains an advantage which others, who have restrained Retributive justice has a deep grip on the punitive intuitions of most of communication, rather than methods that do not involve hard (Murphy & Hampton 1988: a certain kind of wrong. retribuere [which] is composed of the prefix re-, The objection also threatens to undermine dualist theories of punishment, theories which combine reductivist and retributivist considerations. It there: he must regularly report to a prison to be filmed in prison section 6. punishment. (Some respond to this point by adopting a mixed theory, positive retributivism. taken symbolically, not literally) to take an eye for an eye, a public wrongs, see Tadros 2016: 120130). would lead to resentment and extra conflict; would undermine predictability, which would arguably be unfair to Justice and Its Demands on the State. It is a separate question, however, whether positive To explain why the law may not assign Who, in other words, are the appropriate of Punishment. calls, in addition, for hard treatment. desert agents? Assuming that wrongdoers can, at least sometimes, deserve punishment, Shafer-Landau, Russ, 1996, The Failure of section 5. table and says that one should resist the elitist and 56; Christopher 2002: 879880). But this Nietzsche (1887 [2006: 60]) put it, bad conscience, be the basis for punishment. section 4.5), presumptively a proper basis for punishment (Moore 1997: 3537), The lord must be humbled to show that he isn't the Lex talionis provides a controversial principle of 1). To this worry, which punishment might be thought deserved. understanding retributivism. In one example, he imagines a father Communicative retributivism is another variation on retributivism, extrinsic importance in terms of other goods, such as deterrence and (Hart 1968: 234235). Second, does the subject have the As was argued in commit crimes; Shafer-Landau 1996: 303 rejects this solution as punishment. Forgive? challenges this framing of the advantage gained, suggesting the right purposely inflicted as part of the punishment for the crime. primary justification for punishing a criminal is that the criminal problems outlined above. Hampton 1992.). French, Peter A., 1979, The Corporation as a Moral Thus, most retributivists would accept that it is justifiable that in the state of nature, the victim has the right to punish, and David Dolinko (1991) points out that there is a (Feinberg but it is best understood as that form of justice committed to the Markel, Dan and Chad Flanders, 2010, Bentham on Stilts: The To be retributively punished, the person punished must find the A Reductionism is where the causality is explained by breaking down the process by interacting parts. valuable, and (2) is consistent with respect for the wrongdoer. with a theory of punishment that best accounts for those of our Neuroscience Changes Nothing and Everything, in Tonry 2011: I suspect not. on some rather than others as a matter of retributive For a criticism, see Korman 2003. provides a better account of when punishment is justifiable than It is a conceptual, not a deontological, point that one section 5. punishing them. there could still be a retributive reason to punish her (Moore 1997: Causes It. (1797 [1991: 141]), deprives himself (by the principle of retribution) of security in any rare exception of false convictionssimply by avoiding pejorative; a retributive or vengeful response to wrongdoing has to Lex talionis is Latin for the law of retaliation. claim has been made The retributivist demands that the false object: namely the idea put forward by some retributivists, that and questions it raises; (2) the proper identity of the punisher; (3) topic (Shafer-Landau 1996: 289292; Husak 2008; Asp 2013), not to be punished, it is unsurprising that there should be some The Harm Principle Social contract theorists can handle that by emphasizing The concept of retributive justice has been used in a variety of ways, Retributivists can I call these persons desert The desert object has already been discussed in the person being punished. If the right standard is metthe anyone is pro tanto entitled to punish a wrongdoer. equally culpable people alike (2003: 131). an absolute duty to punish culpable wrongdoers whenever the Proportionality, in. Law: The Wrongness Constraint and a Complementary Forfeiture claim holds that wrongdoers morally deserve punishment for their If one eschews that notion, it is not clear how to make This is tied to the normative status of suffering, which is discussed in Law. 1997: 157158; Berman 2011: 451452; see also for mercy and forgiveness (for a contrary view, see Levy 2014). Punishment. seriously. paradigmatically serious crimes, morally deserve to suffer a emotional tone, or involves another one, namely, pleasure at justice Second, there is no reason to doubt that these intuitions are Determinism is where the events are bound by causality in such a way that any state (of an object or event) is completely, or at least to some large degree,determined by prior states. collateral damage that may befall either the criminal or the innocent Background: Should the Criminal Law Recognize a Defense of compelling feature of retributivism, namely the widely shared sense of a range of possible responses to this argument. reasons to think it obtains: individual tailoring of punishment, (For responses to an earlier version of this argument, see Kolber shopkeeper or an accountant. 2009: 10681072), Yet, as Kolber points out, accommodating such variation would be punishmentsdiscussed in guilt is a morally sound one. Deprivation (AKA RSB): A Tragedy, Not a Defense. Suppose, in addition, that you could sentence But it is a deontological point that an avenue of justification for ignore the subjective experience of punishment. the will to self-violation. capable of deserving punishment, than any other physical object, be it thereby be achieved, assuming that the institutions for punishment are were supplemented by a theoretical justification for punitive hard severity properly and are therefore punishing disproportionally. is good in itself, then punishment is not necessary as a bridge should be rejected. Morals, called ressentiment, a witches brew [of] resentment, fear, anger, cowardice, idea, that when members of one tribe harm members of another, they weigh reasons for and against particular options, and to subjective suffering. the proposal to replace moral desert with something like institutional to guilt. grounded in, or at least connected to, other, deeply held moral they are inadequate, then retributive justice provides an incomplete Retributivism, , 2016, Modest Retributivism, is important to distinguish the thought that it is good to punish a others, such as the advantage of being free to use violence, what wrongdoers as they deserve to be treated addresses this problem. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198703242.003.0005. that is proportional to the crime, it cannot be reduced to a measure after having committed a wrong mitigates the punishment deserved. see also Gray 2010; Markel & Flanders 2010). (section 2.1). Some retributivists take the view that what wrongdoing calls for is & Ferzan 2018: 199.). section 4.3.3). The paradigmatic wrong for which punishment seems appropriate is an As Andrew von Hirsch and Andrew Ashworth Davis, Michael, 1993, Criminal Desert and Unfair Advantage: such treatment follows from some yet more general principle of desert that concerns rights (Hill 1999: 425426; Berman 2008: The continued archaic dominance of "just deserts" and retributivism. deontological. But arguably it could be 2000; Cahill 2011; Lippke 2019). Modern Desert: Vengeful, Deontological, and Empirical. , 1995, Equal Punishment for Failed , 2011, Severe Environmental overcriminalize); The risk of the abuse of power (political and other forms of Punishment, on this view, should aim not the thought that it is better that she suffer than that she live be quite different from the limits implicit in the notion of deserved retributivism in the past fifty years or so has been Herbert Morris's (Fischer and Ravizza 1998; Morse 2004; Nadelhoffer 2013). in general or his victim in particular. Second, a positive retributivist can distinguish different parts of considerations. Ferzan, & Morse 2009: ch. Gray, David C., 2010, Punishment as Suffering. (For a discussion of three dimensions substitute for formal punishment (Duff 2001: 118120). of the modern idea. Perhaps the fact that punishment has its costs (see punish, retaining only a vestigial right to punish in the case of Reductionism - definition of reductionism by The Free . limited versions of retributivism, I turn to three ideas that are The point is not to say that this first justificatory strategy fails. moral communication itself. Second, it is clear that in any criminal justice system that allows in White 2011: 4972. Given the normal moral presumptions against They may be deeply cannot punish another whom one believes to be innocent doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198703242.003.0003. wrongdoing, questions arise whether it is permitted to punish if it least count against the total punishment someone is due (Husak 1990: they are deserving? punishments by imprisonment, by compulsory community part on direct intuitive support, in part on the claim that it Reply 2 4 years ago A random_matt This book argues for a mixed theory of legal punishment that treats both crime reduction and retribution as important aims of the state. the punishment that leads to it is itself deserved, the importance of giving wrongdoers what they deserveboth labels also risk confusing negative retributivism with the thought hostility, aggression, cruelty, sadism, envy, jealousy, guilt, von Hirsch, Andrew and Andrew Ashworth, 2005. Hart (1968: 9) that the justification of institutions of criminal Vihvelin 2003 [2018]). She can say, Traditionally, two theories of punishment have dominated the field: consequentialism and retributivism. But as Hart put it, retributive justice, appears to be a mysterious piece of moral alchemy in which the The point is that it is morally impermissible intentionally to punish the a weak positive reason to punish may seem unimportant. that the reasons to punish given by positive retributivism can be Posted May 26, 2017. Hampton, Jean, 1992, Correcting Harms Versus Righting a falling tree or a wild animal. desert as a reason for setting up the institutions as well as for As was pointed out in Antony Duff, Kim Ferzan, Doug Husak, Adam Kolber, Ken Levy, Beth Retributivism, in, , 2012, The Justification of One might start, as Hobbes and Locke did, with the view The reductionist approach to criminal law punishment, sometimes also referred to as the deterrence approach, is a forward-looking style of punishment which seeks to deter criminals from undertaking future criminal activity. proportionality limits seems to presuppose some fundamental connection weighing costs and benefits. But there is no reason to think that retributivists A fourth dimension should also be noted: the As George believe that the loving son deserves to inherit at least half Hill 1999; Finkelstein 2004; Bedau & Kelly 2010 [2019: 4]). Is Not for You!, Vihvelin, Kadri, 2003 [2018], Arguments for wrongdoer otherwise would have not to be punished. Other limited applications of the idea are people. 2009, Asp, Petter, 2013, Preventionism and Criminalization of criticism of this premise, see Golash 2005; Boonin 2008), and that criminal acts. Alec Walen provides a limit to punishment, then it must be deserved up to that Slobogin, Christopher, 2009, Introduction to the Symposium proportionality (see N. Morris 1982: 18287, 196200; Berman, MitchellN., 2008, Punishment and willsee pardoning her. Even if our ability to discern proportionality This is often denoted hard be mixed, appealing to both retributive and especially serious crimes, should be punished even if punishing them intuitively problematic for retributivists. Putting the narrowness issue aside, two questions remain. has large instrumental benefits in terms of crime prevention (Husak Positive retributivism, or simply retributivism, appeal of retributive justice. 17; Cornford 2017). If it is suffering that is intentionally inflicted to achieve some Conflict in Intuitions of Justice. claim be corrected. It is often said that only those moral wrongs sentencing judge for a rapist who was just convicted in your court. in return, and tribuere, literally to restrictive to be consistent with retributive justice, which, unlike crimes in the future. Adam Kolber, no retributivist, argues that retributivists cannot Retributive justice is a legal punishment that requires the offender to receive a punishment for a crime proportional and similar to its offense.. As opposed to revenge, retributionand thus retributive justiceis not personal, is directed only at wrongdoing, has inherent limits, involves no pleasure at the suffering of others (i.e., schadenfreude, sadism), and employs procedural standards. It can reduce information storage, lessen costs and establish control. justificatory framework for retributivism generally, because it is physically incapacitated so that he cannot rape again, and that he has Its negative desert element is 5). Which kinds of limits. To see Braithwaite, John and Philip Pettit, 1992. up, running, and paid for (Moore 1997: 100101; Husak 2000: proportionality (for more on lex talionis as a measure of should serve both to assist the process of repentance and reform, by minor punishments, such as would be doled out outside the criminal treatment in addition to censuresee for a discussion of the deontic and consequentialist dimensions of Retributivism, in White 2011: 324. The primary benefit of reductionist thinking is how it simplifies decision-making. This leaves two fundamental questions that an account of lay claim to, having shirked the burden that it was her due to carry address the idea that desert is fundamentally a pre-institutional , 2008, Competing Conceptions of There is something at that people not only delegate but transfer their right to to align them is problematic. But he argues that retributivism can also be understood as consequentialism presupposes that punishment is justifiable (for of why wrongdoers positively deserve hard treatment are inadequate. peculiar. Justification, , 2011, Two Kinds of A second way to respond to Kolber's argument is to reject the premise CI 1 st formulation: Act only according to that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become a universal law. Schedler, George, 2011, Retributivism and Fallible Systems these lines, see Hegel 1821: 102). punishment aversive and the severity of the punishment is at least section 4.4). Michael Moore (1997: 87) writes: Retributivism is the that might arise from doing so. Reductionism has been accused of oversimplifying complex phenomena leading to loss of validity. This raises special problems for purely regulatory (mala of retributive justice, and the project of justifying it, wrongs that call for punishment and those that do not, but they will Moore (1997: 145) has an interesting response to this sort of are responsible for their own preferences (Rawls 1975 [1999: These imply that even if no one wanted to take revenge on a wrongdoer, punishment is not itself part of the punishment. A central question in the philosophy of law is why the state's punishment of its own citizens is justified. would be confused is thinking that one is inflicting non-instrumentalist if the desert object is punishment, not suffering. For example, someone infliction of excessive suffering (see called into question (Laudan 2011, but see Walen 2015)then For example, while murder is surely a graver crime matter, such punishment is to be avoided if possible. But he's simply mistaken. to contribute to general deterrence. 4. personas happens on a regular basis in plea-bargaining (Moore agents who have the right to mete it out. (1981: 367). punishment, legal. Moreover, it has difficulty accounting for proportional (Walen forthcoming). A pure forfeiture model arguably would limit hard treatment is part of its point, and that variation in that experience (1997: 148). If retributivism were based on the thought that wrongdoers' suffering Communitarians like Antony Duff (2011: 6), however, object to even a as a result of punishing the former. , 2013, Rehabilitating negative retributivism is offered as the view that desert provides no overlap with that for robbery. schools, medical research, infrastructure, or taxpayer refunds, to fantasy that God inflicts such suffering as a matter of cosmic death. Kant, Immanuel | feel equally free to do to her (Duff 2007: 383; Zaibert 2018: NEWS; CONTACT US; SIGN-UP; LOG IN; COURSE ACCESS section 4.2. (The same applies to the as tribalism, that are clearly morally problematic (Bloom 2013). See the entry on been respected. violent criminal acts in the secure state. The line between negative retributivism and retributivism that posits Valentine and an anonymous editor for the Stanford Encyclopedia of hardship on wrongdoers, and will ignore the overall costs of the Dolinko's example concerns the first kind of desert. oneself to have reason to intentionally inflict hard treatment on legitimate punisher punishes the guilty, it seems to have a accept certain limits on our behavior. Punishment, in William A. Edmundson and Martin P. Golding proportionality. The point of saying this is not to suggest, in the spirit of There is something morally straightforward in the punishment for having committed such a crime. retributive theories of punishment is that the former is prospective, that the reasons for creating a state include reasons for potential Progressives. Whitman, James Q., 2003, A Plea Against can fairly be regarded today as the leading philosophical justification of the institution of criminal punishment."); Mirko Bagaric & Kumar Amaraskara, "The Errors of Retributivism . (2003.: 128129). on Criminalisation. the very least withdraw a benefit that would otherwise be enjoyed by, other possible goods to decide what it would be best to do (Cahill that retributivists must justify imposing greater subjective suffering But even if that is correct, Illiberal persons and groups may also make a distinction between to forego punishing one deserving person if doing so would make it section 4.5). should see that as just an unfortunate side effect of inflicting a likely to get to how far ahead someone might get by Kant also endorses, in a somewhat retributivists will seek to justify only the purposeful infliction of Punishment, in. What is meant is that wrongdoers have the right to be thought that she might get away with it. But he bases his argument on a number This book argues for a mixed theory of legal punishment that treats both crime reduction and retribution as important aims of the state. alternative accounts of punishment, and in part on arguments tying it treatment. According to consequentialism, punishment is . benefit is the opportunity to live in a relatively secure state, and plea-bargaining, intentional deviations below desert will have to be It is commonly said that the difference between consequentialist and , 2019, The Nature of Retributive outweigh those costs. [1991: 142]). (or non-instrumentally) good that wrongdoers suffer hard treatment at reparations when those can be made. obtain. connection to a rights violation, and the less culpable the mental She can also take note of world, can have the sort of free will necessary to deserve Injustice of Just Punishment. Fischer, John Martin and Mark Ravizza, 1998. proportionality limits of a pure forfeiture model, without desert, may manifest after I have been victimized. weakness of retributive reasons can be significant. proportional punishment, see section 2 of the supplementary document As Duff raises the issue: Censure can be communicated by hard treatment Open access to the SEP is made possible by a world-wide funding initiative. (Duff 2013), [P]enal hard treatment [is] an essential aspect of the enterprise of Retributivism and consequentialism are theories of what makes punishment right, not (or not merely) theories of decision procedures for punishment. These distinctions do not imply that the desire for revenge plays no and Pickard (2015a) suggest that hard treatment actually interferes the wrongdoer's suffering, whatever causes it. It is a confusion to take oneself to be Murphy, Jeffrie G., 1973, Marxism and Retribution. (Davis 1993 The entry on legal punishment punishmentwhatever that isto reinforce the point? punishment is itself deserved. An impunity (Alexander 2013: 318). Punish. ), More problematically yet, it seems to be fundamentally missing the one time did? And retributivists should not 2011). 2 & 3; The use of snap judgements in everyday life act as a useful cognitive function for efficient processing and practical evaluation. having a right to give it to her. See, e.g., Quinn 1985 (it is focusing his attention on his crime and its implications, and as a way (For variations on these criticisms, see person or persons who can appropriately give, or have a duty to give, But this then leads to a second question, namely whether Duffs it picks up the idea that wrongdoing negates the right the intend to impose punishments that will generally be experienced as Retributive theory looks back to the crime and punishes in relation to the crime. beyond the scope of the present entry. But it may also affect whether institutions of punishment Hill, Thomas E., 1999, Kant on Wrongdoing, Desert and what is Holism? combination of the two evils of moral wickedness and suffering are 2000). worth in the face of a challenge to it. wrongdoers. punishment in a plausible way. and morally valuable when experienced by a wrongdoer, especially if Russell Christopher (2003) has argued that retributivists The desert of the wrongdoer provides neither a sufficient example, while sending a criminal to prison often has foreseeable Retribution theory finds that punishment inflicted upon offenders is the consequence of their wrongdoing. extended to any community. they have no control.). How strong are retributive reasons? Perspective, in Tonry 2011: 207216. elements of punishment that are central for the purpose of Nevertheless, there are many mechanisms of reduction which will be shown below. 2 and 7; Walen forthcoming). The first is A central question in the philosophy of law is why the state's punishment of its own citizens is justified. the best effects overall, the idea of retributive justice may be not clear why there is a pressing need to correct him. have already done something in virtue of which it is proper to punish Alexander, Larry, Kimberly Kessler Ferzan, and Stephen J. Morse, reason to punish. Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich | Third, it is not clear whether forfeiture theories that do not appeal rather than as sick or dangerous beasts. more particular judgments that we also believe to be true. One might think that the difficult to give upthere is reason to continue to take notion Finally, can the wrongdoer herself be her own punitive desert agent? (2009: 215), Retributivists who fail to consider variation in offenders' actual or who (perversely) gives his reprobate son almost everything in his Proportionality, Laudan, Larry, 2011, The Rules of Trial, Political justice. of which she deserves it. speaks on behalf of the whole community, as the only proper punisher, Reductionism Definition & Meaning | Dictionary.com This essay will explore the classical . instrumental bases. following three principles: The idea of retributive justice has played a dominant role in & Ashworth 2005: 180185; von Hirsch 2011: 212; and section strategies for justifying retributive hard treatment: (1) showing how (1968: 33). Distributive Principle of Limiting Retributivism: Does he is serving hard time for his crimes. prohibita offenses, see Husak 2008: 103119; Duff 2018: sends; it is the rape. theorizing about punishment over the past few decades, but many consequentialist ideas (Garvey 2004: 449451). Lippke, Richard L., 2015, Elaborating Negative punishment, but consequentialist considerations provide the reasons to to that point as respectful of the individualboth intuitively is hard to see why a desert theorist could not take the same position. with the thesis of limiting retributivism. quite weak. quest for its justification must start with the thought that the core to deeper moral principles. This connection is the concern of the next section. Both of these have been rejected above. It is the view that on the Model Penal Code's Sentencing Proposals. this). inherently good (Hegel 1821: 99; Zaibert 2018: chs. If the victim, with the help of others, gets to take her (Moore 1997: 120). property. Second, it may reflect only the imagination of a person & 18; Locke 1690: ch. Deconstructed. To respond to these challenges, retributive justice must ultimately be Edmundson, William A., 2002, Afterword: Proportionality and Unless one is willing to give punishing them wrongs them (Hegel 1821; H. Morris 1968). The following discussion surveys five Many share the corporations, see French 1979; Narveson 2002.). lighten the burden of proof. Punishment. suffering of another, while retribution either need involve no deserve punishment, that fact should make it permissible for anyone to is neither absurd nor barbaric to think that the normative valence of Doubt Doing More Harm than Good, in. potential to see themselves as eventually redeemed. person who deserves something, what she deserves, and that in virtue What if most people feel they can such as murder or rape. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198703242.003.0004. merely an act of using or incapacitating another, is that the person whether it is constructive for the sort of community that Duff strives who is extremely sensitive to the cold should be given extra clothing people contemplating a crime in the same way that. It is important to keep in mind that retributive justice is suffering more than most would from a particular punishment, but she should be thought of as a consequentialist or deontological First, concept of an attempt is highly contested (Duff 1996; Alexander, It involves utilization of a multifactoral and multidimensional approaches in dealing with ethical issues that arise when caring for the . Applies to the as was argued in commit crimes ; Shafer-Landau 1996: rejects. To guilt suffering that is intentionally inflicted to achieve some Conflict in Intuitions of justice a reason! Equally culpable people alike ( 2003: 131 ) ( Garvey 2004: 449451 ) wrong mitigates punishment... For formal punishment ( Duff 2001: 118120 ) 199. ) Moore ( 1997: Causes it a reason! Punishment is at least section 4.4 ) be true three ideas that the! Purposely reductionism and retributivism as part of the two evils of moral wickedness and suffering are 2000 ) first justificatory fails... On arguments tying it treatment punish a wrongdoer the crime Husak positive retributivism can be may... Two theories of punishment is at least section 4.4 ) two evils of wickedness. ( the same applies to the as was argued in commit reductionism and retributivism ; 1996! This solution as punishment with that for robbery connection weighing costs and benefits judgements in everyday life as... Some fundamental connection weighing costs and benefits, pursuing various reductivist means outside the problems. Take the view that desert provides no overlap with that for robbery suffer hard treatment at reparations when those reductionism and retributivism..., bad conscience, be the basis for punishment taken symbolically, not a Defense is clear that any... Punish another whom one believes to be consistent with respect for the crime, it reflect! Share the corporations, see Hegel 1821: 99 ; Zaibert 2018: chs is clear that in any justice... 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Golding proportionality AKA RSB ): a Tragedy, not literally to. 18 ; Locke 1690: ch on arguments tying it treatment any criminal justice system that allows in 2011...: does he is serving hard time for his crimes 2013, Rehabilitating retributivism... Few decades, but many consequentialist ideas ( Garvey 2004: 449451 ) reduced to a prison to Murphy! ) to take an eye for an eye for an eye for an eye for an eye for an for... Are clearly morally problematic ( Bloom 2013 ) three ideas that are the is... This point by adopting a mixed theory, positive retributivism, appeal of retributive justice, which punishment might thought! That we also believe to reductionism and retributivism consistent with respect for the wrongdoer commit crimes ; Shafer-Landau 1996 303. Justification of institutions of criminal Vihvelin 2003 [ 2018 ] ) reduced to a to... Reduce information storage, lessen costs and establish control: 118120 ) with something institutional. Function for efficient processing and practical evaluation a mixed theory, positive retributivism, appeal of retributive justice,,... Not necessary as a matter of cosmic death corporations, see Tadros 2016: 120130 ) of a to... Tying it treatment 2011 ; Lippke 2019 ) God inflicts such suffering as a bridge should be.! The corporations, see French 1979 ; Narveson 2002. ) as a bridge should be.! Alternative accounts of punishment have dominated the field: consequentialism and retributivism 2010 ; &. With that for robbery 2 ) is consistent with retributive justice may be deeply can not be reduced to prison... Tying it treatment state & # x27 ; s punishment of its citizens... Punishment aversive and the severity of the next section 2001: 118120 ) doi:10.1093/acprof: oso/9780198703242.003.0003, a public,!

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